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Vrttis
The klesas represent the different forms this outward movement adopts as it comes
into contact with the objects of knowledge. The process of knowing itself is the
domain of buddhi, and so by focussing our attention on the modifications of buddhi
we turn away from the objects known to focus inwardly on the means of knowing. The
modifications of buddhi are known as vrttis (from the verb root vrt = 'to turn,
revolve, roll, move') and as the means of knowing their function is to provide a
connection between the seer and the seen, the knower and the known. Patanjali lists
five kinds of vrttis that correspond to the five kinds of cognitive activity that
the Yoga-darsana recognises.
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As, when a jar is broken, the space enclosed by it becomes palpably
the limitless space, so when the apparent limitations are destroyed, the knower
of Brahman verily becomes Brahman itself. (Viveka-cudamani, 565)
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Mahavakyas
The knowledge that liberates (svarupa-jnana) does not produce moksa, it simply removes
the ignorance that was responsible for the illusion of bondage just as the knowledge
of the rope dissolves the snake-illusion. To know Brahman is to be Brahman. It is
through this identity of the Self (atman) and the Absolute (Brahman) that Samkara
interprets what tradition refers to as the mahavakyas (great sayings) of the Upanisads.
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Pramana is a means of acquiring valid knowledge, and includes direct sense perception
(pratyaksa), logical inference (anumana) and the testimony of what has come to us
from tradition (agama).
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Viparyaya is the misconception or misperception of one thing for another that gives
rise to erroneous knowledge.
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Vikalpa is the cognitive activity associated with imagination in the sense that
its objects are not supported by the evidence of the senses. It refers to the use
of the resources of language to produce concepts or images that do not correspond
to anything in the phenomenal world.
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Nidra (from the verb root dra = 'to sleep' + ni = down, into') is dreamless sleep.
Nidra is counted among the vrttis, even though it is devoid of all recognisable
attributes, because when we awake we may be aware of having slept well. Nidra resembles
the objectless state of asamprajnata-samadhi in being devoid of attributes, but
differs in being a predominantly tamasic state (dull and inactive).
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Smrti (from the verb root smr = 'to remember') is memory or recollection, which
for Patanjali is the re-cognition of a previous experience without the addition
of any new elements.
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As fluctuations or modifications of buddhi (or more generally of citta), any particular
vrtti that arises may fall neatly into one of these kinds of cognitive activity,
or may be a combination of two or more of them. Patanjali also distinguishes between
vrttis that are afflicted (klista) or non-afflicted (aklista): afflicted vrttis
are associated with the klesas and so draw purusa towards the pheneomenal world,
whereas the vrttis regarded as non-afflicted are those that are conducive to liberation
insofar as they draw purusa inwards as happens in the various states of concentration
(dharana), meditation (dhyana) and samadhi recommended by Patanjali. The vrttis,
afflicted or otherwise, also contribute to the creation or deepening of latent impressions
in citta known as samskaras that are laid down over many lifetimes and are responsible
for the shape of one’s karma. Samskaras are the sub-conscious traces of our experiences,
and are therefore a memory of past experiences as well as latent behavioural patterns
that under appropriate conditions are subconsciously activated and relived (see
the article on karma-yoga for more details).
Vairagya and Abhyasa
Regardless of the nature of any particular vrtti, by focussing on the processes
by which we know instead of the objects known we can begin the process of restricting
and then eliminating the fluctuations of citta. Patanjali states that this is to
be achieved through vairagya (dispassion, nonattachment) and abhyasa (constant practice,
continuous endeavour). In order to withdraw our attention from the objects of the
senses we must overcome our attachment to them, and this is what is required of
the lower form of vairagya in which the desire for objects of any description is
eliminated. The higher form of vairagya takes us beyond the restriction of the vrttis
to their complete cessation by becoming free of any desire whatsoever, even the
desire for desirelessness or liberation itself. The first step is therefore to become
unattached to the objects and focus instead on the vrttis that connect the seer
to the seen. The second is to cease to identify with the vrttis themselves. In doing
so citta is steadied and purusa is reflected without distortion in a predominantly
sattvic buddhi. This process requires abhyasa which is a sustained effort to firstly
bring the fragmented activity of citta into focus, and then to maintain the stability
of citta until the liberating discrimination between purusa and prakrti arises.
In the context of the Yoga-sutra as a whole, one way of interpreting Patanjali’s
reference to vairagya and abhyasa as means of constraining the vrttis is to connect
them with the disciplines recommended in the eight limbs of his astanga-yoga (asta
= 'eight' + anga = 'limb'). In this respect vairagya is developed in both its forms
through the continued and dedicated practice (abhyasa) of the recommended disciplines.
However Patanjali also suggests an alternative to this systematic and progressive
steadying of citta. For some, or maybe more to the point for the few, a more direct
means of cultivating samadhi is devotion or surrender to Isvara (Isvara-pranidhana,
I.23).
Isvara (from the verb root is = 'to rule') is conceived in different ways by various
schools of Indian thought. For instance in Sankara’s Advaita Vedanta, Isvara is
the conditioned appearance of an impersonal Absolute (see the article on jnana-yoga
for more details). In Ramanuja's theistic Visistadvaita Vedanta, Isvara is the supreme
Ruler and Controller of the Universe (see the article on bhakti-yoga). For Patanjali,
though, Isvara is a purusa unique among purusas, never touched by the klesas or
karma, never in need of liberation, and responsible for the transmission of the
teachings of yoga in every new cycle of prakrti. Devotion or surrender to Isvara
is not a form of bhakti-yoga which trades on the emotional force of the devotee,
but rather a direct means of turning the attention inwards and attaining samadhi
by concentrating with total commitment on Isvara as the archetype of spiritual freedom.
Obstacles to Yoga
For those capable of such a complete self-surrender the preliminary disciplines
of astanga-yoga are unnecessary. However for those of us sorely afflicted by the
klesas, and so in need of a graduated series of practices, Patanjali provides an
inventory of the major obstacles (antaraya) that must be overcome in order to succeed
in yoga.
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Illness (vyadhi).
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Apathy or languor (styana).
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Doubt and indecision (samsaya).
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Negligence, heedlessness or carelessness (pramada).
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Idleness, apathy, sloth or laziness (alasya).
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Non-restraint or a lack of self-control (avirati).
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False vision, delusion or erroneous views (bhranti-darsana).
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Non-attainment of the stages of astanga-yoga (alabdha-bhumikatva).
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Instability in these stages which is the failure to maintain what has been previously
achieved (anavasthitva).
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These are considered to be obstacles to yoga because they distract us from the task
of steadying citta. Patanjali also notes that these obstacles are accompanied by
several physical symptoms: pain and suffering, despair and depression, unsteadiness
of the limbs or restlessness of the body, and irregular breathing. As a general
corrective to these distractions, Patanjali prescribes a number of broad approaches,
including concentration on a single object or principle, developing a sense of friendliness,
compassion and equanimity towards the world, and regulating the breath in prescribed
ways.
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