|
Saivism
The relationship between Siva and Sakti outlined in the previous section holds in
general terms for Saiva cults as well. The major
distinguishing feature between Saktism and Saivism is the deity worshipped: Sakti
for Saktas and Siva for Saivas. As mentioned above, the term Siva derives from the
verb root si, which means 'to lie' and conveys a sense of Siva as quiescent, though
in the context of Saivism a more suggestive meaning is 'that in which all lies'
which evokes a sense of Siva as the all-pervasive supreme Reality. The term Siva
can also mean good, auspicious, gracious and other similar expressions as well as
Lord, while Samkara is often cited as defining Siva as 'one who purifies by the
utterance of His name' or the 'Pure One' in the sense that Siva is said to be unaffected
by the three gunas (the three basic qualities or characteristics of creation: sattva
- purity, light, harmony; rajas - activity, passion; tamas - dullness, inertia,
ignorance).
In the company of Brahma as the creator of the cosmos and Visnu as its preserver,
Siva completes the Hindu trinity (the trimurti or three forms of Isvara or God in
orthodox Hinduism) in the role of its destroyer. This role shouldn't be interpreted
as something negative, though, as what Siva destroys is the evil and suffering that
must be cleared away for creation to follow. In Saivism the functions performed
by Brahma and Visnu in the trimurti are incorporated into a broader conception of
Siva as the supreme Godhead who exercises five functions: creation (srsti), maintenance
(sthiti), dissolution (samhara), obscuration (tirodhana) and grace (anugraha).
In his personal form Siva is often portrayed as a yogi immersed in meditation wearing
a tiger skin and holding a trident with snakes coiled around his arms and neck,
all of which hold symbolic significance. Siva is also depicted as Nataraja or Lord
of the cosmic dance of creation and destruction, and is commonly represented by
the Siva-linga or lingam (meaning 'mark' or 'characteristic'), an oval-shaped mound
made of stone, metal or clay with three horizontal stripes that is usually positioned
on a yoni (meaning 'womb' or 'source') which acts as a pedestal. In this configuration
the lingam and yoni symbolise the complementary relationship between the masculine
and feminine principles of the cosmos respectively.
As with the beginnings of Tantra generally, the origins of Siva worship are obscure,
with the earliest evidence appearing in the Svetasvatara Upanisad, though there
is mention of Siva earlier still in the Rg Veda under the guise of the deity Rudra
(from the verb root rud = 'to cry or howl'). Rudra appears as one of the 1,008 names
of Siva that are recited by Krsna to Yudhisthira in the Siva Sahasranama, a section
of the great Indian epic the Mahabharata. In the same division of that work there
is another section, the Visnu Sahasranama (thousand names of Visnu), which is one
of the most sacred and often chanted stotras (prayer or hymn) in Hinduism. The inclusion
of both the Siva and Visnu Sahasranamas in the Mahabharata documents their emerging
significance as figures of worship, and pre-dates their increasing importance in
the post-Christian era as both Saivism and Vaisnavism provided a Hindu alternative
to Buddhism and Jainism.
Throughout its long history, Saivism produced an impressive array of lineages and
traditions along with an extensive literature that includes the Saiva Agamas which,
like the Sakta Tantras, are considered to be divinely revealed scriptures. The Saiva
tradition recognises twenty-eight Agamas, though hundreds more are mentioned. As
with the Tantras, the Agamas deal with a range of topics and develop a variety of
philosophical positions, but all accept Siva as the ultimate Reality and supreme
Lord, and all agree on a small number of fundamental doctrines such as the threefold
nature of pasa (literally 'rope') or the bonds that tie the individual to samsara:
the impurities of ignorance (anava) and action (karma), and the power of obscuration
(maya); and the four padas or stages of sadhana: virtuous conduct (carya), forms
of religious worship (kriya), spiritual disciplines that have as their goal self-realisation
(yoga), and liberating wisdom (jnana).
The multiplicity of philosophical positions, religious cultures and forms of sadhana
that have developed around these points of agreement can most easily be discussed
in terms of the major schools or sects of Saivism. However it should be kept in
mind that only a well-informed minority knowingly subscribe to any particular school,
with many if not most devotees of Siva following an eclectic mix of beliefs and
practices that form the religious observances of their families and communities.
A representative selection of these sects would include Kashmir Saivism, Saiva Siddhanta,
Kapalika, Vira Saivism and Pasupata. Kashmir Saivism and Siva Siddhanta are two
of the better documented of these and so will be discussed in more detail in the
following sections.
The Kapalikas are a fiercely ascetic and eccentric sect that worships the fearsome
aspect of Siva in the form of Bhairava the ferocious. The term kapalika means 'skull
bearer' and in this context refers to the characteristic Kapalika practice of carrying
a human skull as a begging and food bowl. Some also link the Kapalikas with devotion
to Lord Siva in the form of the supreme begger who is depicted as wearing nothing
but a garland of skulls and ash from funeral pyres. The Kapalikas are sometimes
confused with another eccentric Saiva sect the Aghoris, which some believe split
off from the Kapalikas in the fourteenth century CE. Aghoris are notorious for living
in cremation grounds, smearing themselves with ash from burnt corpses, meditating
while seated on corpses, and even eating the flesh of these. These practices are
consistent with the Aghori's strongly non-dualistic metaphysics and are designed
to subvert conventional Hindu distinctions such as those between purity and impurity.
If all distinctions are ultimately illusory, as non-dualism implies, then this truth
can be realised by transcending social taboos and embracing even the most culturally
marginal aspects of life.
Vira Saivism accepts a version of qualified non-dualism referred to as sakti vishishtadvaita
which recognises both the difference and non-difference of Siva and the jiva somewhat
like the relationship between the sun and its rays. Siva and His Sakti are held
to be ultimately non-different and the world is accepted as real and not illusory,
however Siva is considered to be more than His creation, being both the efficient
and material cause of the cosmos.
Pasupata is the earliest known Saiva sect and is thought to have been founded by
Lakulisa in the first or second century CE. Pasupatas worship Siva as Pasupati,
Lord of individuals and animals (from pasu meaning individual soul or animal, and
pati which means Lord as well as being another name for Siva). This school accepts
a version of the bhedabheda doctrine or the relation of indentity in difference.
For the Pasupatas this means that Siva as the ultimate reality is both non-dual
(abheda) and the personal Lord of all pasu or individuals. This implies a difference
(bheda) between Pati and pasu that remains even after liberation which is nonetheless
understood as a state of complete union with Siva, and is sometimes compared to
stars disappearing in the sky at dawn.
|