The various techniques of pranayama control the quality, depth and timing of the breath primarily through different ratios of inhalation (puraka: ‘to fill’), exhalation (recaka: ‘to empty’) and retention (kumbhaka: ‘pot-like’). The diverse ratios of these dimensions of the breath are designed to optimise its purificatory functions, which is a necessary precursor to the more important task of guiding (or forcing) prana into susumna-nadi.

When the nadis are full of impurities, the breath [prana] does not go into the middle nadi, susumna. Then there is no attainment of the object nor arriving at Unmani avastha (‘that state which transcends the mind [manas]’). (HYP: 2.4)

When the practice of pranayama has balanced the various dosas and pranas and purified the nadis, the focus turns to regulating the flow of prana through ida- and pingala-nadis, before redirecting that flow into susumna-nadi. Pingala- and ida-nadis are also referred to as ‘ha’ or the surya (sun) channel and ‘tha’ or the candra channels respectively, and it is the redirection of the prana in these nadis into susumna that is meant by the ‘union of sun and moon’ in one common understanding of Hatha-Yoga.

When the breath [prana] flows through the susumna, then the mind becomes steady. This steadiness of the mind (citta) is called Manonmani [or Unmani] avastha [Samadhi state]. (Hatha-Yoga-Pradipika: 2.42)

Patanjali treats pranayama as a precursor to the three ‘internal limbs’ (antar-anga) of his system: dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation) and samadhi. In Hatha-Yoga pranayama is not merely preparatory but its central practice, with Brahmananda (Jyotsna: 2.12) and others holding that the higher limbs of Patanjali’s system are achieved in Hatha-Yoga by retaining prana in susumna-nadi for increasing periods of time. In both cases, though, the most important aspect of pranayama is kumbhaka (retention), which strictly speaking denotes the suspension of the flow of breath in order to steady the mind.

Asana having been perfected, suspension of either of the processes of drawing in external air and exhaling internal air constitutes a pranayama. (Yoga-Sutra: 2.49)   At the end of the retention of breath in kumbhaka, the mind (citta) should be made free of objects. By thus practising, the stage of Raja-Yoga is reached. (Hatha-Yoga-Pradipika: 2.77)

Kumbhaka is of two kinds which are sometimes referred to as sahita (‘supported’) and kevala (‘absolute’). Sahita-kumbhaka is the retention of breath as part of a cycle of inhalations and exhalations and includes both antara-kumbhaka (‘inner retention’) where the breath is held within the body, and bahya-kumbhaka (‘external retention’) where the breath is held outside of the body. Kevala-kumbhaka is the spontaneous retention of the breath for an indefinite period without the requirement to inhale or exhale, and it is in this state that prana is said to flow into susumna-nadi.

The various pranayama techniques detailed in Hatha texts are also referred to as kumbhakas and eight such practices are described below, though it should be kept in mind that there is a degree of divergence in the descriptions of these in various Hatha texts. In addition to these eight, the Hatha-Yoga-Pradipika (2.7-10) among other texts also mentions the practice of alternate nostril breathing known as nadi sodhana (‘to purify’) or anuloma viloma, which activates and harmonises ida- and pingala-nadis.

1. Surya-bheda-kumbhaka: in this context surya (‘sun’) represents pingala-nadi and the right nostril, while bheda is taken to mean ‘to pierce or pass through’, which when combined denotes the practice of inhaling solely through the right nostril and exhaling through the left. 
2. Ujjayi-kumbhaka: ujjayi means ‘victorious’ or more literally ‘uplifting’. This kumbhaka is performed by breathing through both nostrils while constricting the throat (i.e., slightly closing the glottis) enough to enable an audible rasping sound to be made: ‘the breath fills the space from throat to the heart with a noise’ (Hatha-Yoga-Pradipika: 2.51).
3. Sitkari-kumbhaka: sit is an onomatopoeic term that means ‘hissing’, and kari means ‘maker’ or ‘that which produces’; so this is the ‘hissing kumbhaka’ or the kumbhaka that produces a hissing sound. It involves inhaling through the mouth with the lips slightly apart, teeth gently touching, and tongue freely suspended. After retention, the breath is exhaled through the nose. Sitkari cools the body, and can be done after bhastrika-kumbhaka to counterbalance the excess heat produced in the body by that practice.
4. Sitali-kumbhaka: sitali means ‘that which cools’ as well as ‘calm, passionless, unemotional’, and is performed like sitkari, except that the sides of the tongue are curled over to form a tube which protrudes between the lips through which air is sucked in, and after a brief retention exhaled through the nose. Apart from the difference in the position of the lips and tongue, the only difference between sitkari and sitali is that the former is focused on the hissing sound and the latter on the cooling sensation of the breath.
5. Bhastrika-kumbhaka: bhastra can mean ‘bellows’, and in bhastrika one breathes ‘like a bellows’, i.e., with rapid inhalation and exhalation through both nostrils driven by a forceful pumping action in the upper abdomen. This practice is said to fan the ‘internal fire’, and because of this is believed to be particularly effective for breaking through the three granthis within susumna-nadi.
6. Brahmari-kumbhaka: bhramari signifies ‘that which belongs to a bee’, especially its sound, so in this pranayama a ‘bee-like’ or ‘humming’ sound is produced during inhalation and exhalation that focuses awareness and attunes the practitioner to the ‘inner sounds’ or nada. 
7. Murccha-kumbhaka: murccha can mean ‘swooning’ or ‘to expand, pervade’ and generally involves fixing one’s attention between the eyebrows (i.e., on ajna-cakra) while retaining the breath. This practice is said to produce a euphoric state reminiscent of fainting that is nonetheless not a state of unconsciousness but one of heightened awareness in which everything which is not the Self (atman) dissolves.
8. Plavini-kumbhaka: plava means ‘floating’ and plavini ‘that which floats’, and the HYP (2.70) describes this practice as enabling one to float ‘like a lotus leaf’ on the surface of water due to the filling of the body with air (and prana). Exactly how the technique is performed is not made clear. Other sources describe plavini as similar to vata-sara-dhauti, except the air is retained in the stomach and intestines and not expelled immediately. Some yogis practice plavini before going into samadhi for days together so that the stomach remains full during their fast.

Mudras and Bandhas

… making every effort, the (various) mudras should be practised to awaken the great goddess (kundalini) who sleeps at the mouth of susumna (the doorway to the Absolute).

The term mudra (from mud = ‘joy’ + ra = ‘to give’) can mean ‘gesture’, ‘hand pose’ or ‘seal’ among other things, and is so-called because mudras are said to please the deities and reveal the bliss of the Self. In a general sense, mudras are symbolic hand positions or gestures that are used in rituals and Indian classical dance to express inner feelings and states, or to convey virtues such as charity, knowledge and courage. Representations of Hindu deities and saints often include mudras.

In Hatha-Yoga the term mudra has a broader connotation, including hand positions or gestures as well as specific muscular contractions and physical poses other than asanas that involve more than the hands, all of which are designed to ‘seal’ the body to facilitate the retention of prana and focus awareness. When prana acculumates and awareness turns inwards, mudras occur spontaneously as a natural expression of particular inner states. The voluntary practice of mudras, either by themselves or in conjunction with asanas and pranayama, is designed to elicit similar inner states by regulating the flow of prana. 

The principal muscular contractions are also referred to as bandhas (from the verb root bandh = ‘to bind’) which means ‘lock’ or ‘binding’, and alludes to the action of binding or locking prana in particular parts of the body in order to channel it into susumna-nadi. Bandhas can be practised alone but are more often employed in pranayama, with different combinations of the three main bandhas (which are described below) accompanying both antara- and bahya-kumbhakas to aid the unification of prana- and apana-vayus.

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