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Mantra-yoga
The Sanskrit term mantra derives from the verb root man which means ‘to think’, which with the suffix tra meaning ‘tool’ or ‘instrument’ gives the literal meaning ‘instrument of thought’, or more suggestively a thought or intention expressed in sound. Other etymologies of the term suggest a connection with trayate which can mean ‘protecting’ or ‘saving’ and manana meaning ‘reflection’ or ‘consideration’, giving ‘that which saves the one who reflects on its significance’. A mantra can be a single sound that has no apparent meaning such as the bija-mantras associated with the cakras, a word or a phrase, or an entire sentence such as the gayatri-mantra which is one of the oldest and most revered mantras in Hinduism.
om
bhur bhuvah suvah
tat saviturvarenyam
bhargo devasya dhimahi
dhiyo yo nah pracodayat
(May we attain that excellent glory of Savitr [the solar God]
So may he stimulate our prayers (Rg-veda: 3.62.40))
Mantra is also a term that refers to the hymns that along with the Brahmanas constitute the ritual section (karma-kanda) of the Veda and that are mostly preserved in the Rg and Artharva-samhitas. The Veda is regarded by Hindus as sruti which means ‘revealed scripture’, but also ‘what is heard’ and ‘direct assertion’. The Veda is therefore literally the ‘Divine Word’ (sabda or vac), or more suggestively the ‘Divine Speech’ that was ‘heard’ by the Vedic rsis (seers) and passed on as an oral tradition.
In Tantric thought sabda (from the verb root sabd = ‘sound’) - which carries meanings such as sound, verbal testimony or knowledge, and scriptural authority - was given a cosmological role by being linked with the cre
.jpg) | ative power of Sakti. The first stirrings of Sakti are referred to as nada or para-sabda (the supreme sound), which is the most subtle of four levels of sabda that range from this inaudible creative vibration (spanda) to audible sound and speech. The next level is referred to as pasyanti-sabda or ‘visible sound’, which alludes to the capacity of adepts to apprehend the cosmos and approach the Absolute through the subtle audition of the pranava or primordial sound ‘om’. The pranava is symbolised in Devanagari (Sanskrit script) as ‘aum’ and is the most sacred symbol and mantra in Hinduism. As the fount of all audible sound, the pranava is thought to give rise madhyama-sabda or the ‘middle sound’ that manifests as the forty-nine sounds of the Sanskrit alphabet. These ‘middle sounds’ are also referred to as matrkas or ‘little mothers’, as they not only serve as the basis of all letters and words, but are more significantly regarded as constituent forms of the Great Mother Sakti’s creative activity: ‘as from a mother comes birth, so from matrka the world proceeds.’ The final level is vaikhara-sabda or the manifest sound that is heard and vocalised in speech, and which is the most determinate aspect of a continuum of sound that corresponds with the manifestation of the cosmos.
Against the background of the founding importance of the Veda and the Hindu doctrine that speech is the mother of creation, the efficacy of mantras in Tantric sadhana can be understood in terms of an intrinsic connection between manifest sound and the more subtle reaches of sabda. As manifest sound, mantras represent or act as symbols for particular aspects of Sakti’s creative activity. For instance many mantras correspond to particular Hindu deities, and when these are recited they provide sadhakas with an easily accessible means of addressing their chosen deity, whether as a form of worship or supplication. However as a constitutive aspect of the divine creation, these mantras are in a very real sense the deities themselves; that is, the mantra is both a symbol and the reality symbolised. This means that the repetition of a mantra holds the promise of aligning the sincere sadhaka with the source of all manifestation by focussing attention on manifest sound as a living expression of that source. Abhinavagupta illustrates this point in his Tantraloka (7.3-5) by comparing the way a water wheel moves a series of mechanical devices coupled to it under the under the power of moving water, to the way a mantra when repeated conscientiously creates a connection with the corresponding deity who then becomes an auspicious presence on the sadhaka’s spiritual life. Mantras are in this sense capable of ‘saving those who reflect on their significance’ simply because they span the full extent of Sakti’s creative activity, the more subtle reaches of which become accessible as the sadhaka allows their awareness to be shaped by the mantra itself.
From the Vedic period onwards, mantras have been used in a range of contexts from the magical to the religious for purposes that extend from acquiring magical powers, appeasing natural forces or warding off undesirable ones, to petitioning gods in order to accumulate wealth, avoid potential dangers or eliminate enemies. The recitation of mantras as a form of spiritual practice has in all likelihood a history as old as yoga itself, though as a spiritual discipline in its own right mantra-yoga seems to have developed within or at least alongside the broader Tantric tradition. As one of the fundamental elements of Tantric sadhana, mantra-yoga is mentioned in many Tantric scriptures, but is also the subject of dedicated texts such as the Mantra-Yoga-Samhita, Mantra-Mahodadhi, and Mantra-Maharnava.Like other forms of Tantric sadhana, the practice of mantra-yoga requires the direction of a suitable guru who in this case initiates the sadhaka into the correct pronunciation and intonation of particular mantras, as well as reputedly imparting the mantra with its spiritual force. Texts such as the Mantra-Yoga-Samhita insist that the effectiveness of a mantra depends on the proper initiation (diksa) into its use: ‘Initiation (diksa) is the root of all recitation (japa)’ (1.5).
The Mantra-Yoga-Samhita also details a comprehensive sixteen-limb discipline that places the practice of mantra-yoga within the esoteric and ritualistic framework so characteristic of Tantra.
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Bhakti (loving devotion) involves the worship of the Divine in three forms: vaidhi-bhakti or prescribed devotion in a ceremonial context; raga-atmika-bhakti or devotion touched by wordly concerns; and para-bhakti or the supreme devotion that leads to an experience the bliss of the Divine.
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Suddhi (purification) entails the ritual purification of the physical body through bathing and the application of scared ash; of the mind through study and the cultivation of virtues such as austerity, truthfulness, kindness and patience; of the location where one practises mantra-yoga; and of the four directions, each having a particular significance with regard to where one faces when recitating mantras at different times of the day.
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Asana (steadiness in posture) includes both the cultivation of steadiness in the body through the relaxation of the effort required to maintain sitting postures such as padmasana and svastikasana, and the use of appropriate materials for the seat upon which one sits to practise.
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Panca-anga-sevana (serving the five-limbs) consists of five rituals: daily recitation of the Bhagavad-Gita and the Sahasra-Nama of the major devas, and the chanting of mantras that praise, protect and open the heart, all of which aim to serve five anga (from the verb root ang = ‘to move’) or ‘limbs’ or aspects of the Divine.
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Acara (conduct) is associated with three kinds of conduct that reflect the predominance of one of the three gunas or qualities in the sadhaka’s character: vama-acara (left-hand) or vira (heroic) conduct involves an engagement in worldly activities with the goal of nonattachment to the fruit of all actions; daksina-acara (right-hand) requires worldly renunciation; while divya-acara (divine) is said to go beyond both worldly activity and renunciation.
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Dharana (concentration) is fixed attention on some object that may be external or internal with the aim of refining the recitation of mantras.
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Divya-desa-sevana (serving the divine space) involves the ritual consecration of the place where one practises mantra-yoga in order to enhance its effectiveness.
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Prana-kriya (breath ritual) consecrates one’s body by incorporating or placing (nyasa) the prana or vital forces associated with particular mantras into various parts of the body.
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Mudra (gesture or seal) are gestures made by the hands and/or fingers that channel the body’s subtle forces and focus one’s attention.
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Tarpana (satiating) is the offering of libations of water to a chosen deva.
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Havana (invocation) involves the recitation of mantras to invoke a chosen deva while making a sacrificial offering.
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Bali (tribute or offering) entails the offering of gifts such as fruit to a chosen deity as an outward sign of the offering of oneself.
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Yaga (oblation or sacrifice) includes both external and internal sacrifices, though the latter is said to be more efficacious.
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Japa (repetition of a mantra) is of three types in order of effectiveness: vacika or voiced; upamsu or whispered; and manasa or silent. Mantras should always be carefully enunciated, even when repeated silently. A fourth type known as likhita-japa or written recitation is sometimes recommended.
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Dhyana (meditation) is a deepening of dharana insofar as one’s attention is directed in a continuous and uninterrupted fashion towards some chosen object.
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Samadhi (meditative absorption) occurs when dhyana ripens into a state in which one’s awareness becomes completely absorbed in the Divine, how it is represented.
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